Week 1 Overview and Lecture

Adult Learning and Learning Theories

Due: Complete this online lesson before posting in the discussion board or completing any other assignments due this week.

Note: The course content is presented through readings, instructor-created lessons, and other media. It is important to review all course materials before completing the assignments.

The week 1 lesson describes the adult learner, introduces traditional learning theories, and compares andragogy to pedagogy. The role of technology is discussed.

Course Objectives covered this week include:

  • CO1: Apply learning theories, and formal, nonformal, and informal learning practices to the development of a teaching plan suitable for the adult learner. (SLO 1)

Student Learning

This module provides an introduction to student learning theory with an emphasis on adult learning. The adult learner has different abilities, needs, and interests than do children.  Understanding how adults learn is necessary to provide this population with meaningful instruction. Faculty must understand the foundation of learning theories that contribute to a growing body of knowledge about student learning. Any discussion of student learning must consider the context in which learning takes place. These include such things as globalization, the knowledge society, technology, and changing demographics

Globalization: Education is a commodity, now available worldwide via the internet. This allows educators to teach students that they can make a difference in the world through learning (Reimers, 2016) Links to an external site..  Nursing students often voice their desire to make the world a better place and to ease suffering in their communities. It is essential that nursing faculty prepare these learners for a complex and diverse world where local and global interests intersect. 

The Knowledge Society: Information and data are the building blocks of knowledge. From this knowledge comes innovation. Information on the web doubles approximately every 90 day. In today’s world, change is so accelerated that a person can never learn all they may need to know.  Faculty must teach students how to learn, not just what to learn,  We must instill the desire for life long learning. 

Technology: Technology is changing how adults learn. Online educational offerings contribute to globalization and the knowledge society. However, there are still many marginalized individuals in the U.S. and around the world who are not connected to the digital world. Computer-based, online learning has increased access to education worldwide, but this technology brings with it the need to develop digital literacy throughout the populace. The Covid-19 pandemic forced nursing programs to rely on technology in ways never before imagined, highlighting the differing levels of technical literacy among both students and faculty.

Changing Demographics: Several changes in demographics worldwide is impacting learning.

  1. Illiteracy continues to plague the developing world. To overcome social injustice and disparities, and strengthen economic growth, countries must learn how to provide educational opportunities for all people.
  2. People are living longer. This has resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of persons 65 years and older in the population. This population has special learning needs, which requires the development of policies and programs to meet these needs.
  3. An increase in the diversity has added challenges to providing education to the adult population. One must consider the learning needs and styles of the various groups and align the curriculum to meet the needs of the ever-changing population.

What is an Adult Learner?

Adults have many roles and responsibilities. Adults feel responsible for their lives and the decisions they make. Adults are often practical and prefer results, so they need to learn what is applicable to their lives at the present time. Adults can be more close-minded, so they are not as amenable to change.  Linking new information to prior knowledge can stimulate adult learning. As people age, the process of learning is slowed, hence learning could take longer, but adult learners who persist will increase their depth of learning. Adult learners utilize previous life experiences as a basis for learning; and they are often very motivated. Finally, adult learners are those individuals who choose to add the role of student to their other responsibilities.  As a result, they often struggle to manage a busy schedule. Adult learners have high expectations and expect to see immediate results (Pappas, 2013 Links to an external site.).

The Emerging Adult Learner

There is a tendency to think of nursing students as adult learners.  While that is technically true, 37% of all nursing students are under the age of 25.  This age group is commonly referred to as Gen Z, or as “emerging adults” (Dimock, 2019) This group is especially prominent in pre-licensure baccalaureate programs where as many as 76% of students are under the age of 25.  The chart below demonstrates the difference in age groups among different types of nursing programs.

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Since The Denver College of Nursing has several different types of programs, this information can give you a better sense of who your students are.  Although ratios may vary among programs, it is safe to say that you will teach students from all age groups, usually in the same classes.  In addition to understanding the characteristics of adult learners, it is helpful to recognize some of the differences in the "emerging" adult group (Parker and Igielnik Links to an external site., 2020; Schukel, 2020 Links to an external site., Bethune, 2019 Links to an external site.).  These students:  

  • Were born into technology - they have never known life without cell phones and computers.  They also spend more time on their devices and accessing the Internet than previous generations They expect to see technology in the classroom.
  • Are more accustomed to diversity - this is a racially and ethnically diverse group who are comfortable with differences, including those of gender.
  • May have difficulty with emotional regulation and mental health - they have been hard hit by recent social and economic difficulties. 91% of Gen Z adults say they have experienced at least one physical or emotional symptom because of stress, lack interest, motivation or energy.
  • Tune out what they don't think is important - this group has experienced more standardized testing than any other. They are quick to tune out anything they think is just "teaching to the test." They want to see the relevance.
  • Have shorter attention spans - this will challenge educators to come up with ways to keep students engaged.
  • Want immediate feedback - Due to the instant gratification of social media, text messaging, etc., these students tend to be impatient and want immediate feedback on assignments.  They may also expect faculty to answer phone calls or emails in an unreasonable amount of time. 

Remember that the students we call adults are from multiple generations, each having their own traits and expectations.  The study of adult education provides information applicable to most adults, but an understanding of generational differences can help you develop relevant  learning activities and understand why your teaching strategies may not always work for everyone. Table-2-Picture.png

      Image credit: Schuneman, 2020.

Types of Learning

Approximately 50% of U.S. citizens ages 25-55 are involved in adult education in some form (Merriam and Bierma, 2014).. This education can take place formally, nonformally, or informally.  Formal learning is learning that takes place in an educational setting or institution. Your participation in this online course is an example of formal learning. Nonformal learning takes place when participating in events sponsored by an organization whose primary mission is not education. For example, you might attend a CPR class at the local fire station. Informal learning is learning that takes place in every day life. Informal learning is broken down into other types of learning.

  • Self-directed learning: In this form of learning, individuals take primary charge of planning, continuing, and evaluating their learning experiences.
  • Incidental learning: This type of learning occurs as a result of an experience. It happens outside of our conscious awareness. For example, you are tallying up figures on an Excel spreadsheet using a calculator. Your colleague asks what you are doing, and you explain. They proceed to show you how you can use a function in Excel to do this for you automatically. You have learned how to use a function in Excel because you were working on a project, not intentionally studying Excel.
  • Tacit learning: This form of learning takes place at a more subconscious level.  It is intuitive and rooted in experience.  For example, you learn not to bring up a particular topic in the presence of certain people.
  • Integrative learning. The process of making connections among concepts and experiences so that it can be applied to novel and complex issues or challenges. It involves inquiry, reflection, and application (Center for Integrative Learning, n.d. Links to an external site.).

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Learning Theories

There is no single definition of learning. To some, learning is fundamentally the process of changing behavior.  Others see it as an internal mental process. Some focus on its experiential and transformative nature.  It is important to acknowledge that there is no single, correct definition of learning. Still, theories have been developed that try to explain and measure the phenomenon of learning.

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Regardless of which definition/philosophy of learning makes sense to you, we know that learning is a complex behavior that involves how we think, feel and do things. 

Domains of Learning

Cognitive = gaining knowledge involving conscious intellectual activity 
Psychomotor = learning a new physical skill through movement or manipulation
Affective = emotions and attitudes

Review this article for additional information and understanding: The Three Domains of Learning and Bloom's Taxonomy Links to an external site.. Note that while this provides a quick overview, a few of the links embedded in the article no longer work.  Additional information about the domains of learning and Bloom's Taxonomy are readily available from other Internet sources.

Traditional Learning Theories
Behaviorism - learning requires a change in behavior
Cognitivism - learning is the ability to process information
Social Cognitive Theory - learning occurs in a social setting; information observed is processed and then physically replicated
Constructivism - learning occurs as one attempts to create meaning from experiences

Please view this video for additional information on these theories.

The Study of Adult Learning

Plato’s Academy was a shady spot located outside of Athens and was founded in 387 BC. It was an informal place of learning  for those who were interested in receiving education on topics such as philosophy and math, with Plato as the teacher. Aristotle’s Lyceum was founded in 335 BC. The Lyceum was known as a Peripatetic School (from the Greek word peripatos, which means stroll) as it is believed that Aristotle liked to stroll through the school’s tree filled groves discussing philosophy and the principles of mathematics and rhetoric with his students. Both of these were considered adult education institutions where dialogue and parables were used for what we call problem-based learning today. Pedagogy came into use in the seventh century as schooling of children began. It was notable that adult learning is different from learning in childhood, however, an approach to adult learning was yet to be identified.

Research on adult learning began in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. Pavlov, Skinner, Piaget, Freud, Maslow, and Rogers all used investigative tools from their time periods in an attempt to understand the nature of learning. Hence the establishment of learning theories. In 1928, Thorndike et al. published the first scientific study on adult learners.  In 1926, the American Association for Adult Education was founded and Eduard Lindeman published his book entitled The Meaning of Adult Education in the United States. It was in this book that andragogy, defined as a method for teaching adults, was first used. Until the 1970s, adult educators had to rely on Lindeman and other social philosophers when designing programs and instructional material for adult learners.

Gradually resources became available that helped to distinguish learning in adulthood from that in childhood. Houle published The Inquiring Mind in 1961, and Tough published The Adult’s Learning Projects in 1971. Houle’s study of 22 adults focused on the motivation for learning, whereas Tough’s study of 66 adults lead to what is referred to today as self-directed learning.

In 1967, a Yugoslavian adult educator, Dusan Savicevic attended a workshop presented by Malcolm Knowles. It was at this workshop that Savicevic introduced Knowles to the term andragogy, a term used in England to define the body of knowledge about adult learning. Knowles first wrote about andragogy in an article published in 1968. In 1970, Knowles (1988) wrote more about andragogy in his book The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy. It was revised and updated in 1988. Knowles is credited with identifying a “formula” for adult learning (as it has yet to be labeled a model or theory) and, as a result, andragogy has contributed to the professionalization of adult education by establishing a knowledge base unique to the adult learner.

Knowles’ Assumptions

  1. With age, one moves from dependent learning to self-directed learning.
  2. Adults accumulate experiences that contribute to learning.
  3. One’s level of development in their social role is directly related to their readiness to learn.
  4. Adults are more problem-centered in their learning as it must be applicable in the present.
  5. Internal motivation is what makes the adult determined to learn.
  6. Learning has to have a purpose and the adult needs to understand that purpose.

Andragogy vs. Pedagogy vs Heutagogy

Pedagogy refers to the discipline of teaching and is often associated with teaching children. Andragogy is the facilitation of adult learning.  You may also see the word heutagogy, which means self-determined or self managed learning.

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There is controversy over Knowles assumptions of andragogy since the assumptions are not necessarily applicable to adults only. For example, some children can be self-directed in their learning (andragogy) depending on their experience and knowledge level; and adults may need more teacher-driven learning (pedagogy) if they are learning something completely new that they have little knowledge or experience with. It is also noted that culture, race, gender, and society or social class can impact how, or if, adult learning takes place. More research is required, however, Knowles’ theory/model/approach to adult learning continues to be an important guide for educators in developing programs of study for the adult learner.

Conclusion: In conclusion, an adult learner is one who continues to pursue knowledge even while managing other roles and responsibilities. Learning is ongoing, hence lifelong learning can be summarized as purposeful learning that takes place across the lifespan in a variety of settings. Lifelong learning promotes economic, social and cultural development and is rooted in the context of globalization, the knowledge society, technology and changing demographics. Individuals learn in different ways. Lifelong learning can occur formally, nonformally, or informally, but learning is often required for people to improve their current situation in some way. Learning is a complex behavior that involves how one thinks, feels, or does. How we know and learn has been studied by many.  As a result, learning theories have been constructed in an to attempt to explain the basic human endeavor of learning.

Adult Learning in the Digital Age

This lecture started out describing the brain as a computer. Well, today we live in a digital world, with computers all around us. With the advent of technology, adult learning has significantly been impacted. The ability to locate information has become very easy, however, technology has brought with it some challenges. Individuals have to be trained to use technology safely and appropriately. Information has to be maintained and protected. Cultural and economic barriers must be overcome. One may think of digital learning as taking an online course, however, digital learning can occur in an informal setting as well, where one is seeking out information on the world-wide-web right from their living room. In fact, more adults who engage in the digital environment do so informally by way of social media. This digital era requires that educators learn how to incorporate technology into their teaching.

The Technology Context

Technology has been infused into the world around us, so much so that one now has to rethink how learning takes place, and the educator must consider how technology impacts their teaching. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is connecting the world, whether the person is across the street or on the other side of the world, one has the ability to communicate and participate in society with the use of technology. Technology has allowed for learning to take place on a global basis as well because CMC is more accessible today than ever before.

Distance learning can be traced back to the 1840s when correspondence courses began being offered. Later instructional radio and TV became available and now we have access to the Internet, which offers a wide range of educational resources. Formal education via the Internet can be delivered in a number of ways: blended or hybrid, fully online, synchronous, or asynchronous. The learner can choose the delivery method that best meets their learning needs. The various types of e-learning delivery are not new, but have developed as a result of more available resources and increased access, and increased access has increased the demand for e-learning.

Even though the use of technology has grown exponentially over the years, there are still areas of the world with limited or no access. This lag in access to technology is mainly noted in developing countries, such as Africa and Asia. In the United States, access to technology is mainly affected by age, income, and education. Resolving the issue of fair and equitable access to technology for all is a global concern that needs to be addressed.

Adult Learners in the Digital Age

One advantage of easy access to CMC is that it promotes life-long learning. In order for learners to benefit from online learning they must have the skill to use the technology, an open attitude toward learning, be prepared and interested in learning, and belong to online communities that encourage positive social interaction. Online learning has been found to provide both skill development and professional growth among users; however, with the fast-paced changes that occur in the field of technology today, the online learner can be faced with the challenge of having to learn the newest of technologies as they evolve.

As noted previously, the online learner can be engaged in both formal and informal learning online. Informal learning can take place by researching information on any given topic, whereas formal learning can occur when the learner enrolls in a formal education course. Employers have also taken advantage of the online learning environment. Many employers provide cost-effective education to thousands of employees via the Internet. Regardless of the context of the learning, all online learning is unbound by location and time.

The one big question that online learning raises is, is it effective learning? Many studies have concluded that online learning is effective. However, one of the biggest challenges associated with online learning is student’s retention. Attrition rates are much higher in online education programs. Literacy, time management, reading, writing and online communication skills can affect the abilities of the online learner to remain in a program. Additionally, social constraints can also be a problem affecting retention. These problems can range from the job and/or family responsibilities, unanticipated illness, finances, etc., although these challenges are similar to what adults would face in a traditional classroom environment as well.

The online learning environment offers a lot of advantages, but one must be aware of concerns associated with being active on the Internet. First of all, users of the internet must be aware of and avoid involvement in Internet crimes, such as theft, stalking, cyberbullying, etc. Second, one must be aware of how the Internet has decreased the learner’s ability to concentrate. With frequent and swiftly moving content coming across the screen, online users have become accustomed to obtaining bits of information rather than seeking depth to any given information or story. Additionally, individuals find themselves connected or online quite frequently. Hence, experts recommend that the online learner participates in seven mental activities to help unplug. These include focus time (working on a goal-oriented task), play time (spontaneous and creative activities), connecting time (engaging with others), physical time (exercise), time in (reflection), downtime (unfocused, mind wandering), and sleep time.

The Teaching-Learning Context of the Digital Age

Most any information a learner is seeking today is available online. However, one must be cautious, as not all information available via the Internet is accurate or reliable. The consumer of information, or the learner, must develop skills such as using effective search strategies, critically evaluating the information found, and utilizing reputable Internet sources in order to trust the information that is found.

It is evident that technology is affecting education. It affects what is learned, how it is learned and how it is taught. Due to the constant changes and advancements in technology, both learners and educators must stay up to date regarding new information, products, and devices as they become available. This can prove to be challenging at times, but it is necessary for mobile apps, tablets, and smartphones have become the means of accessing information. Currently, apps exist for adult learning topics from literacy, to foreign languages, to math; and more and more, teaching apps will be accessible for use in the classroom to supplement teaching.

Games have always been a useful way to augment learning. Now electronic game-based learning is available and it has been proven to enhance learning and knowledge retention as compared to traditional lecture-based teaching. It is evident that electronic learning opportunities are everywhere, and come in the form of continuing education, fun/entertainment, and formal degree acquisition. These e-learning opportunities are attractive to the adult learner due to their convenience and flexibility.

One andragogical idea that has come from the utilization of CMC is the flipped classroom. This idea of teaching supports the adult education values of active learner engagement and self-direction. The flipped classroom allows the educator to be more of a facilitator. The educator allows students to discuss what has been learned and is able to detect errors in the student’s understanding and application of concepts that the student studied previously to entering the classroom. The flipped classroom also allows for more one-to-one interactions with the educator and the learner; however, students may mourn the loss of the traditional in-class lecture format if this technique is utilized.

Conclusion: In conclusion, an adult learner is one who continues to pursue knowledge even while managing other roles and responsibilities. Learning is ongoing, hence lifelong learning can be summarized as purposeful learning that takes place across the lifespan in a variety of settings. Lifelong learning promotes economic, social and cultural development and is rooted in the context of globalization, the knowledge society, technology and changing demographics. Individuals learn in different ways, with the most common learning styles being auditory, visual, and kinesthetic. Regardless of one’s learning style, lifelong learning can occur formally, nonformally, or informally, but learning is required for one to improve their current situation in some way. Learning is a complex behavior that involves how one thinks, feels, or does. How we know and learn has been studied by many and as a result, learning theories have been constructed to attempt to explain the basic human endeavor of learning, which does occur over the course of a life time.

References

Select Next to complete the Week 1 Reading.